05 Oct 2023
| 05 Oct 2023
Rate-dependence of the compressive and tensile strength of granites
Jackie E. Kendrick
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilian-Universität München, Munich, 80333, Germany
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Anthony Lamur
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilian-Universität München, Munich, 80333, Germany
Julien Mouli-Castillo
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
Andrew P. Fraser-Harris
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Alexander Lightbody
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Katriona Edlmann
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Christopher McDermott
School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, EH9 3FE, UK
Zoe Shipton
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XJ, UK
Related authors
Yan Lavallée, Takahiro Miwa, James D. Ashworth, Paul A. Wallace, Jackie E. Kendrick, Rebecca Coats, Anthony Lamur, Adrian Hornby, Kai-Uwe Hess, Takeshi Matsushima, Setsuya Nakada, Hiroshi Shimizu, Bernhard Ruthensteiner, and Hugh Tuffen
Solid Earth, 13, 875–900, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-875-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-875-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Volcanic eruptions are controlled by the presence of gas bubbles in magma, which, in excess, can cause explosions. Eruption models lack an understanding of how gas percolates in magma flowing in a conduit. Here we study gas percolation in magma associated with the 1994–1995 eruption at Mt. Unzen, Japan. The results show that the pathways for gas escape depend on the depth and ascent rate of magma. Pathways closed at depth but opened along fractures when magma ascended rapidly near the surface.
Jackie E. Kendrick, Lauren N. Schaefer, Jenny Schauroth, Andrew F. Bell, Oliver D. Lamb, Anthony Lamur, Takahiro Miwa, Rebecca Coats, Yan Lavallée, and Ben M. Kennedy
Solid Earth, 12, 633–664, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-633-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-633-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The last lava dome eruption of Mount Unzen (Japan) ended in 1995, but ongoing instability means much of the area remains an exclusion zone. The rocks in the lava dome impact its stability; heterogeneity (contrasting properties) and anisotropy (orientation-specific properties) can channel fluids and localise deformation, enhancing the risk of lava dome collapse. We recommend using measured material properties to interpret geophysical signals and to model volcanic systems.
Rebecca Coats, Jackie E. Kendrick, Paul A. Wallace, Takahiro Miwa, Adrian J. Hornby, James D. Ashworth, Takeshi Matsushima, and Yan Lavallée
Solid Earth, 9, 1299–1328, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1299-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1299-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Lava domes are mounds of viscous lava and their collapse can cause deadly pyroclastic flows. This paper looks at the example of Mt. Unzen in Japan. Using novel experimental techniques, we discovered that crystals and bubbles in the lava make it behave differently to what was previously thought and that it becomes weaker and more susceptible to collapse as it cools. This calls for a review of current models, allowing for better failure prediction of lava domes in the future.
O. D. Lamb, S. De Angelis, K. Umakoshi, A. J. Hornby, J. E. Kendrick, and Y. Lavallée
Solid Earth, 6, 1277–1293, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-6-1277-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-6-1277-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we analyse the seismic record during the extrusion of a lava spine at Unzen volcano, Japan, in 1994. We find two strong groups of similar volcanic earthquakes which, combined with previously published field and experimental observations, we interpret as repetitive fracturing along the margin of the lava spine. This work demonstrates the potential of combining these different approaches for achieving a greater understanding of shallow volcanic processes.
J. E. Kendrick, Y. Lavallée, K.-U. Hess, S. De Angelis, A. Ferk, H. E. Gaunt, P. G. Meredith, D. B. Dingwell, and R. Leonhardt
Solid Earth, 5, 199–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-199-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-199-2014, 2014
Olaf Kolditz, Christopher McDermott, Jeoung Seok Yoon, Jörg Renner, Li Zhuang, Andrew Fraser-Harris, Michael Chandler, Samuel Graham, Ju Wang, and Mostafa Mollaali
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2024-2, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2024-2, 2024
Preprint under review for SaND
Short summary
Short summary
The DECOVALEX Task SAFENET is dedicated to advancing the understanding of fracture nucleation and evolution processes in crystalline rocks, with applications in nuclear waste management and geothermal reservoir engineering.
Gonçalo B. Cunha and Christopher Ian McDermott
Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal, 2, 107–107, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-107-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/sand-2-107-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The flow of water through fractured aquifers can be simulated with computer software. For a single fracture, a map of the empty space (aperture) between the two faces is required. Traditionally, this is fed to the software by sampling the frequency distribution or upscaling. This study analyses a greywacke's fracture roughness spatial continuity (how points are correlated in direction and distance) and creates an upscaled aperture map for computer simulations that better represents reality.
Yan Lavallée, Takahiro Miwa, James D. Ashworth, Paul A. Wallace, Jackie E. Kendrick, Rebecca Coats, Anthony Lamur, Adrian Hornby, Kai-Uwe Hess, Takeshi Matsushima, Setsuya Nakada, Hiroshi Shimizu, Bernhard Ruthensteiner, and Hugh Tuffen
Solid Earth, 13, 875–900, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-875-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-875-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Volcanic eruptions are controlled by the presence of gas bubbles in magma, which, in excess, can cause explosions. Eruption models lack an understanding of how gas percolates in magma flowing in a conduit. Here we study gas percolation in magma associated with the 1994–1995 eruption at Mt. Unzen, Japan. The results show that the pathways for gas escape depend on the depth and ascent rate of magma. Pathways closed at depth but opened along fractures when magma ascended rapidly near the surface.
Jennifer J. Roberts, Clare E. Bond, and Zoe K. Shipton
Geosci. Commun., 4, 303–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-303-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-303-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The potential for hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to induce seismicity is a topic of widespread interest. We find that terms used to describe induced seismicity are poorly defined and ambiguous and do not translate into everyday language. Such bad language has led to challenges in understanding, perceiving, and communicating risks around seismicity and fracking. Our findings and recommendations are relevant to other geoenergy topics that are potentially associated with induced seismicity.
Jackie E. Kendrick, Lauren N. Schaefer, Jenny Schauroth, Andrew F. Bell, Oliver D. Lamb, Anthony Lamur, Takahiro Miwa, Rebecca Coats, Yan Lavallée, and Ben M. Kennedy
Solid Earth, 12, 633–664, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-633-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-633-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The last lava dome eruption of Mount Unzen (Japan) ended in 1995, but ongoing instability means much of the area remains an exclusion zone. The rocks in the lava dome impact its stability; heterogeneity (contrasting properties) and anisotropy (orientation-specific properties) can channel fluids and localise deformation, enhancing the risk of lava dome collapse. We recommend using measured material properties to interpret geophysical signals and to model volcanic systems.
Billy James Andrews, Zoe Kai Shipton, Richard Lord, and Lucy McKay
Solid Earth, 11, 2119–2140, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2119-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-2119-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Through geological mapping we find that fault zone internal structure depends on whether or not the fault cuts multiple lithologies, the presence of shale layers, and the orientation of joints and coal cleats at the time of faulting. During faulting, cementation of fractures (i.e. vein formation) is highest where the fractures are most connected. This leads to the counter-intuitive result that the highest-fracture-density part of the network often has the lowest open-fracture connectivity.
Billy J. Andrews, Jennifer J. Roberts, Zoe K. Shipton, Sabina Bigi, M. Chiara Tartarello, and Gareth Johnson
Solid Earth, 10, 487–516, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-487-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-487-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Rocks often contain fracture networks, which can strongly affect subsurface fluid flow and the strength of a rock mass. Through fieldwork and workshops we show that people report a different number of fractures from the same sample area of a fracture network. This variability results in significant differences in derived fracture statistics, which are often used as inputs for geological models. We suggest protocols to recognise, understand, and limit this effect on fracture data collection.
Rebecca Coats, Jackie E. Kendrick, Paul A. Wallace, Takahiro Miwa, Adrian J. Hornby, James D. Ashworth, Takeshi Matsushima, and Yan Lavallée
Solid Earth, 9, 1299–1328, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1299-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-1299-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Lava domes are mounds of viscous lava and their collapse can cause deadly pyroclastic flows. This paper looks at the example of Mt. Unzen in Japan. Using novel experimental techniques, we discovered that crystals and bubbles in the lava make it behave differently to what was previously thought and that it becomes weaker and more susceptible to collapse as it cools. This calls for a review of current models, allowing for better failure prediction of lava domes in the future.
Alexandru Tatomir, Christopher McDermott, Jacob Bensabat, Holger Class, Katriona Edlmann, Reza Taherdangkoo, and Martin Sauter
Adv. Geosci., 45, 185–192, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-45-185-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-45-185-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
In the context of hydraulic fracturing we constructed a comprehensive FEP database and applied it to six key focused scenarios defined under the scope of FracRisk project (www.fracrisk.eu). The FEP database is ranked to show the relevance of each item in the FEP list per scenario. The main goal of the work is to illustrate the FEP database applicability to develop a conceptual model for regional-scale stray gas migration.
O. D. Lamb, S. De Angelis, K. Umakoshi, A. J. Hornby, J. E. Kendrick, and Y. Lavallée
Solid Earth, 6, 1277–1293, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-6-1277-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-6-1277-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we analyse the seismic record during the extrusion of a lava spine at Unzen volcano, Japan, in 1994. We find two strong groups of similar volcanic earthquakes which, combined with previously published field and experimental observations, we interpret as repetitive fracturing along the margin of the lava spine. This work demonstrates the potential of combining these different approaches for achieving a greater understanding of shallow volcanic processes.
J. E. Kendrick, Y. Lavallée, K.-U. Hess, S. De Angelis, A. Ferk, H. E. Gaunt, P. G. Meredith, D. B. Dingwell, and R. Leonhardt
Solid Earth, 5, 199–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-199-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-199-2014, 2014
Cited articles
Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia, M. A., Scheu, B., Dingwell, D. B.,
Delgado-Granados, H., and Taddeucci, J.: Energy consumption by magmatic
fragmentation and pyroclast ejection during Vulcanian eruptions, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett., 291, 60–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.051, 2010.
Alneasan, M., Behnia, M., and Alzo'ubi, A. K.: Experimental observations on
the effect of strain rate on rock tensile fracturing,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 160, 105256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2022.105256, 2022.
Ashby, M. F., and Sammis, C. G.: The damage mechanics of brittle solids in
compression, Pure Appl. Geophys., 133, 489–521, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00878002,
1990.
ASTM: D3967-08, Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of
intact rock core specimens., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, USA,
https://doi.org/10.1520/D3967-08, 2008.
ASTM: D7012-14e1, Standard Test Methods for Compressive Strength and Elastic
Moduli of Intact Rock Core Specimens under Varying States of Stress and
Temperatures, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, USA,
https://doi.org/10.1520/D7012-14E01, 2014.
Bieniawski, Z. T. and Bernede, M. J.: Suggested methods for determining the
uniaxial compressive strength and deformability of rock materials: Part 1.
Suggested method for determining deformability of rock materials in uniaxial
compression, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 16, 138–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(79)91451-7, 1979.
Brantut, N., Baud, P., Heap, M. J., and Meredith, P. G.: Micromechanics of
brittle creep in rocks, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth, 117, B08412,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JB009299, 2012.
Brantut, N., Heap, M. J., Meredith, P. G., and Baud, P.: Time-dependent
cracking and brittle creep in crustal rocks: A review, J. Struct.
Geol., 52, 17–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2013.03.007,
2013.
Brantut, N., Heap, M. J., Baud, P., and Meredith, P. G.: Rate- and
strain-dependent brittle deformation of rocks, J. Geophys.
Res.-Solid Earth, 119, 1818–1836, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JB010448, 2014.
Das, S., and Scholz, C. H.: Theory of time-dependent rupture in the earth,
J. Geophys. Res., 86, 6039–6051, 1981.
Diederichs, M., Kaiser, P., and Eberhardt, E.: Damage initiation and
propagation in hard rock during tunneling and the influence of near-face
stress rotation, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 41, 785–812, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.02.003,
2004.
Dieterich, J. H.: Time-dependent friction in rocks, J. Geophys.
Res. (1896–1977), 77, 3690–3697, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB077i020p03690, 1972.
Du, K., Sun, Y., Zhou, J., Khandelwal, M., and Gong, F.: Mineral Composition
and Grain Size Effects on the Fracture and Acoustic Emission (AE)
Characteristics of Rocks Under Compressive and Tensile Stress, Rock
Mech. Rock Eng., 55, 6445–6474, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-022-02980-y,
2022.
Dusseault, M. B. and Fordham, C. J.: 6 – Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks,
in: Rock Testing and Site Characterization, edited by: Hudson, J. A.,
Pergamon, Oxford, 119–149, 1993.
Gong, F., Zhang, L., and Wang, S.: Loading Rate Effect of Rock Material with
the Direct Tensile and Three Brazilian Disc Tests, Adv. Civil
Eng., 2019, 6260351, https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6260351, 2019a.
Gong, F.-Q., Si, X.-F., Li, X.-B., and Wang, S.-Y.: Dynamic triaxial
compression tests on sandstone at high strain rates and low confining
pressures with split Hopkinson pressure bar, Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci., 113, 211–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2018.12.005, 2019b.
Healy, D., Timms, N. E., and Pearce, M. A.: The variation and visualisation
of elastic anisotropy in rock-forming minerals, Solid Earth, 11, 259–286,
https://doi.org/10.5194/se-11-259-2020, 2020.
Heap, M. J., Baud, P., Meredith, P. G., Vinciguerra, S., Bell, A. F., and
Main, I. G.: Brittle creep in basalt and its application to time-dependent
volcano deformation, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 307, 71–82,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.04.035, 2011.
Hirose, T. and Shimamoto, T.: Growth of molten zone as a mechanism of slip
weakening of simulated faults in gabbro during frictional melting, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth, 110, B05202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004jb003207,
2005.
Hofmann, H., Zimmermann, G., Zang, A., and Min, K.-B.: Cyclic soft
stimulation (CSS): a new fluid injection protocol and traffic light system
to mitigate seismic risks of hydraulic stimulation treatments,
Geothermal Energy, 6, 27, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40517-018-0114-3, 2018.
Hornby, A. J., Lavallée, Y., Kendrick, J. E., De Angelis, S., Lamur, A.,
Lamb, O. D., Rietbrock, A., and Chigna, G.: Brittle-Ductile Deformation and
Tensile Rupture of Dome Lava During Inflation at Santiaguito, Guatemala,
J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth, 124, 10107–10131,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JB017253, 2019.
ISRM: Suggested methods for determining tensile strength of rock materials,
International J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
Geomech. Abstracts, 15, 99–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(78)90003-7, 1978.
Jackson, R. B.: The integrity of oil and gas wells, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 10902–10903, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1410786111, 2014.
Lamur, A., Kendrick, J. E., Schaefer, L. N., Lavallée, Y., and Kennedy,
B. M.: Damage amplification during repetitive seismic waves in mechanically
loaded rocks, Sci. Rep., 13, 1271, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26721-x,
2023.
Lavallée, Y. and Kendrick, J. E.: Chapter 5 - A review of the physical
and mechanical properties of volcanic rocks and magmas in the brittle and
ductile regimes, in: Forecasting and Planning for Volcanic Hazards, Risks,
and Disasters, edited by: Papale, P., Elsevier, 153-238, 2021.
Li, D. and Wong, L. N. Y.: The Brazilian Disc Test for Rock Mechanics
Applications: Review and New Insights, Rock Mech. Rock Eng.,
46, 269–287, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-012-0257-7, 2013.
Li, J., Wang, M., Xia, K., Zhang, N., and Huang, H.: Time-dependent
dilatancy for brittle rocks, J. Rock Mech. Geotech.
Eng., 9, 1054–1070, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.08.002, 2017.
Ma, X., Westman, E., Counter, D., Malek, F., and Slaker, B.: Passive Seismic
Imaging of Stress Evolution with Mining-Induced Seismicity at Hard-Rock Deep
Mines, Rock Mech. Rock Eng., 53, 2789–2804,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02076-5, 2020.
Nazir, R., Momeni, E., Armaghani, D. J., and Amin, M. M.: Correlation
between unconfined compressive strength and indirect tensile strength of
limestone rock samples, Electron J. Geotech. Eng., 18, 1737–1746, 2013.
Ojala, I. O., Main, I. G., and Ngwenya, B. T.: Strain rate and temperature
dependence of Omori law scaling constants of AE data: Implications for
earthquake foreshock-aftershock sequences, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24617,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020781, 2004.
Paterson, M. S. and Wong, T. F.: Experimental Rock Deformation - The
Brittle Field, 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 347 pp., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2008.07.001, 2005.
Perras, M. A. and Diederichs, M. S.: A Review of the Tensile Strength of
Rock: Concepts and Testing, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 32,
525–546, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-014-9732-0, 2014.
Petrov, Y. V., Karihaloo, B. L., Bratov, V. V., and Bragov, A. M.:
Multi-scale dynamic fracture model for quasi-brittle materials,
Int. J. Eng. Sci., 61, 3–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijengsci.2012.06.004, 2012.
Renard, F., McBeck, J., Kandula, N., Cordonnier, B., Meakin, P., and
Ben-Zion, Y.: Volumetric and shear processes in crystalline rock approaching
faulting, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 116, 16234–16239,
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902994116, 2019.
Renshaw, C. E. and Harvey, C. F.: Propagation velocity of a natural
hydraulic fracture in a poroelastic medium, J. Geophy. Res.-Solid Earth, 99, 21667–21677, https://doi.org/10.1029/94JB01255, 1994.
Rutter, E. H.: On the nomenclature of mode of failure transitions in rocks,
Tectonophysics, 122, 381–387, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(86)90153-8, 1986.
Schild, M., Siegesmund, S., Vollbrecht, A., and Mazurek, M.:
Characterization of granite matrix porosity and pore-space geometry by in
situ and laboratory methods, Geophys. J. Int., 146,
111–125, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01427.x, 2001.
Scholz, C. H.: Microfracturing and the inelastic deformation of rock in
compression, J. Geophys. Res., 73, 1417–1432, 1968.
Scholz, C. H. and Koczynski, T. A.: Dilatancy anisotropy and the response
of rock to large cyclic loads, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid Earth,
84, 5525–5534, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB084iB10p05525, 1979.
Vollbrecht, A., Rust, S., and Weber, K.: Development of microcracks in
granites during cooling and uplift: examples from the Variscan basement in
NE Bavaria, Germany, J. Struct. Geol., 13, 787–799, https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(91)90004-3, 1991.
Wang, F. and Kaunda, R.: Assessment of rockburst hazard by quantifying the
consequence with plastic strain work and released energy in numerical
models, Int. J. Min. Sci. Technol., 29, 93–97,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.11.023, 2019.
Xu, X., Chi, L. Y., Yang, J., and Zhang, Z.-X.: A modified incubation time
criterion for dynamic fracture of rock considering whole stress history,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 164, 105361,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2023.105361, 2023.
Zhuang, L. and Zang, A.: Laboratory hydraulic fracturing experiments on
crystalline rock for geothermal purposes, Earth-Sci. Rev., 216,
103580, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103580, 2021.
Short summary
By testing the strength of granite in compression and tension at a range of deformation rates, we found that the strength increases with faster deformation. This observation highlights that at these rates, relevant for example to geothermal exploration, we have to consider how the rate of deformation impacts the energy released when rocks crack. The results are promising for developing safe procedures for extracting resources from the subsurface.
By testing the strength of granite in compression and tension at a range of deformation rates,...
